Encyclopaedia on India

Ancient India’s rich linguistic heritage, particularly during the Vedic period, saw the creation of its earliest literature, the Vedas. These hymns, prayers, and magic formulas, composed in an Ancient Indian language closely related to Indo-Iranian languages like Ancient Persian and Avestic, represent early literary achievements. The language of the Vedas, spoken by Aryan immigrants in northwestern India, bears striking phonetic similarities to Sanskrit. This early form of language boasts a wealth of grammatical forms, many of which were later retained in the development of Sanskrit literature. Notably, Ancient Indian demonstrates a subjunctive mood absent in classical Sanskrit, adding depth to its grammatical nuances. As the evolution of the language progressed, some grammatical aspects, such as the aorists found in Vedic literature, began to diminish in Sanskrit, marking a significant linguistic transition from Vedic to Classical Sanskrit. Ancient High Indian, as it is sometimes...

  The role of women in ancient India is a subject of profound complexity and rich tradition, characterized by varying degrees of power and social standing across different epochs. Literary sources reveal that women once held positions of considerable equivalence to men in numerous aspects of life, including inheritance, societal status, and even spiritual practices. The origins of matriarchy can be traced back to the very beginnings of human civilization, particularly within the context of the Indus Valley Civilization, where depictions of feminine deities suggest a reverence for the feminine aspect of divinity, notably through the Shakta rituals that venerate goddesses as pivotal cosmic forces. In Vedic society, women were afforded rights and privileges that, at times, surpassed those of men. As portrayed in the Rig Veda , women like Ghosa and Apala are recognized as learned individuals, and the text conveys respect for the wife as a central figure within the household. Public p...

  The Jnatrkas tribe, also recognized as the Natha or Naya clan, holds profound historical significance in the Indian subcontinent, primarily due to its connection with Mahavira, the founder of Jainism. Mahavira, known as the last Tirthankara of the Jains, emerged from this tribe and made substantial contributions to religious reform, establishing Jainism as one of the major religions in India. Settling in regions such as Vaishali, Kundagrama, and its suburb Kollaga, the Jnatrkas cultivated a lifestyle characterized by ethical adherence and spiritual discipline. They were known for their profound fear of sin, which motivated them to abstain from wicked deeds and refrain from causing harm to any living being. Consequently, the Jnatrkas practiced vegetarianism, aligning their dietary choices with their moral philosophy. The Jnatrkas also housed a religious establishment known as Duipalasa, located outside their settlement at Kollaga, which reflects their commitment to spiritual ...

  Ancient Indian dramatists hold a pivotal position in the realm of Sanskrit literature, with their works embodying the artistic and cultural ethos of their time. Sanskrit dramas, which originated from indigenous traditions, emerged as the first formally recognized forms of theatre, marked by their intricate narratives and rich characterizations. The Natyashastra, authored by Bharata, is a seminal treatise on dramatic art that laid the foundation for the principles of performance, dialogue, and stagecraft, influencing generations of playwrights. Among the luminary figures of this era, Kalidasa is often hailed as the greatest dramatist and poet in India's literary heritage. His remarkable works, such as "Shakuntala" and "Vikramorvasiyam," beautifully intertwine themes of love and nature, showcasing his mastery over language and poetic expression. Another significant figure, Bhasa, was initially known only through references in other works until the discovery o...

The Mughal period (early 16th to 18th century India) established a luxurious culinary tradition, Mughlai cuisine , which artfully blended Middle Eastern flavors with Indian spices and ingredients. Reserved for emperors and nobility, Mughlai food exemplified elegance, featuring rich, aromatic dishes incorporating dry fruits, nuts, milk, and cream for sumptuous and exquisite meals. Babur, the empire's founder, introduced Central Asian culinary practices like grilled meats and various fruits and nuts, forming the base of Mughlai cuisine . This evolved dramatically under later rulers like Jahangir and Shah Jahan, whose reigns saw a flourishing of culinary creativity and the use of exotic spices, adding unique fragrance and depth. A significant contribution is Biryani, refined by the Nizams of Hyderabad into a distinctive style. This aromatic dish, celebrated for its complex flavors, combines rice, marinated meats, and spices, embodying Mughlai culinary art. Mughlai cuisine signific...

The Rig Vedic period, marking the dawn of ancient Indian society, laid the foundation for many culinary traditions that resonate even today. While cereals like rice and barley formed the cornerstone of the Vedic diet, the culinary landscape was surprisingly diverse, encompassing a spectrum of foods reflecting both the culture and geographical influences of the time. Agriculture, though still nascent, provided a range of pulses supplementing the staple grains. Dairy products, particularly milk, ghee, and yogurt, held a prominent place, underscoring their nutritional value and religious significance. The Vedic diet also incorporated meat, indicating a more inclusive dietary practice than often perceived. This reflects a pragmatic approach to sustenance in a time where agricultural yields were not always reliable. Flavors were enriched with various salts and spices, although the specific repertoire remains a subject of historical investigation. Evidence suggests the use of natural sw...

Tantra, a complex religious concept, profoundly impacted ancient Indian society by both challenging and complementing the dominant Brahmanical system. While its precise origins are debated, evidence suggests roots predating widespread Brahmanical orthodoxy, possibly within texts like the Atharva Veda. A defining feature of Tantra is its emphasis on individual agency and inclusivity, offering relative freedom in religious practices irrespective of caste, creed, or gender — a stark contrast to the rigid Brahmanical caste hierarchy. Practices like Kumari Puja, where a girl from a lower social stratum could be venerated by a Brahmin, exemplify this egalitarian ethos. Tantra distinguished itself by advocating liberation (“bhukti”) through enjoyment, rather than rejecting worldly pleasures. This is evident in the controlled use of the five Tattvas (wine, meat, fish, hand-poses, and sexual union) in specific rituals, designed to transcend limitations and achieve higher consciousness. T...