Encyclopaedia on India

Religion in ancient India was not static; it evolved significantly through the ages, shaped by the evolving social structure, diverse civilizations, and philosophical discourse of the time. From the primitive worship of natural forces in prehistoric times to the advanced spiritual systems of the Vedic and post-Vedic periods, religion in the subcontinent reflected a dynamic interplay of human beliefs, societal organization, and cultural exchanges. A comprehensive overview of the developmental phases of ancient Indian religion, tracing how it was influenced by shifting social classes, emerging civilizations, and philosophical ideas, ultimately laying the groundwork for enduring religious traditions that continue to thrive today. Early Religious Practices: Nature Worship and Naive Beliefs In the prehistoric era of Indian civilization, there is little evidence of formal religions as we know them today. Early humans likely held basic beliefs and performed simple rituals to honor the na...

The administration of justice in ancient India presents a fascinating tapestry of legal and social practices, revealing a system intricately woven into the fabric of society. Unlike contemporary governance, where the state predominantly oversees the judicial framework, ancient legal systems often operated outside the purview of the monarchy. Vedic literature notably does not assign judicial roles to kings in civil or criminal matters, yet certain figures like the sabhapati in the later Vedic period may have assumed judicial responsibilities. As jurisprudence evolved, the Dharma Shastras and Arthashastra laid the groundwork for a more structured judiciary. The king emerged as the fountain of justice, with the divine duty to punish offenders. A failure to fulfill this obligation might be seen as neglecting a sacred duty, emphasizing the king's moral and legal responsibilities. Indeed, texts prescribed that the king dedicate significant time to adjudication, potentially delegating ...

The interplay between religious authority and royal governance has been a pivotal aspect of ancient Indian states, a dynamic vividly captured in Indian literature. The relationship, characterized by mutual dependence yet occasional conflict, reveals the significant role that the priestly class held in shaping the authority of kings. According to the Aitareya Brahmana, a king's efficacy in his duties was contingent upon his selection of a qualified priest; failure to do so could render his oblations unacceptable. This hierarchical structure placed the priest, particularly the Brahmana , in a position of influence during royal coronations, where the king was required to bow thrice before the Brahmana. Such rituals were meticulously designed to reinforce the subordination of the Kshatriyas and Vaishyas under the Brahmins' spiritual authority. The Rig Veda suggests that a king who honored his priest could attain mastery over his subjects and achieve military successes, further un...

The land system in ancient India reflects a complex interplay between state authority and individual ownership, illustrating the nuanced understanding of property in this historical context. In ancient India, the king was often regarded as the ultimate owner of the land, encompassing both state-held and cultivable land. However, private ownership of land was not uncommon, and this duality shaped the socio-economic framework of the time. The philosophical underpinnings of land ownership are evident in texts such as the Purvamimamsa , which asserts that a king could not arbitrarily dispose of private lands. This principle is echoed in the Arthashastra, where the distinction between royal and private lands is clearly articulated. The philosopher Narada further emphasized this by noting that the king could not interfere with the ownership of land held by individuals, establishing an early recognition of land rights. Nilakantha , representing imperial sovereignty, posits that the empero...

Sirkap, an ancient city located in the vicinity of Taxila in Punjab, Pakistan, is a site of significant archaeological and historical importance. Excavated by the British archaeologist Sir John Marshall and his team, Sirkap has been the focus of extensive research for over a century, unearthing layers of rich history that date back to the 3rd century BCE. The city was initially established by the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius, who sought to integrate Hellenistic culture in the region. It is believed that Sirkap underwent significant reconstruction under the reign of King Menander I, a notable king of the Indo-Greek era. Throughout its existence, Sirkap faced numerous invasions and natural disasters. Following incursions by the Indo-Scythians, parts of the city were rebuilt by the Indo-Parthians, particularly after a devastating earthquake around 30 AD. The Indo-Parthian Kingdom is credited with the construction of significant structures such as the eagle stupa and the temple dedicat...